The Microbiome, its Associated Bacterial Metabolites, and Inflammatory, Metabolomic, and Lipidomic Analysis of Heart Failure Patients

Heart failure (HF) is the end stage of cardiovascular disease and arises when there are structural or functional cardiac abnormalities leading to increased intracardiac pressures and insufficient cardiac output. This study aimed to determine whether HF patients with left ventricular ejection fraction ≤45% had changes in gut microbiome and associated bacterial metabolites compared with healthy individuals. It also looked at the inflammatory, metabolomic, and lipidomic profiles of HF patients and whether these were associated with disease severity or differed from healthy individuals.